Right: Saltwater crocodiles can live in the sea, or fresh or brackish bodies of water. As the map above shows, their range is enormous.
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Arguments in favour of increased crocodile culling in Australia
1. Crocodiles are a threat to human beings' physical safety
Saltwater crocodiles are known to be highly aggressive and can pose a significant threat to people who live in or visit northern Australian states and territories. Supporters of increased culling believe it can reduce this threat.
Saltwater crocodiles are apex predators, meaning they are at the top of their food chain. Saltwater crocodiles are aggressive when encroached upon and will treat humans as prey. There are about 200,000 saltwater crocodiles worldwide, with Indonesia being a major habitat. Indonesia suffers the most saltwater crocodile attacks in the world. In the past decade (the ten years pre-2023), there have been about 1,000 attacks, killing more than 450 people.
Crocodiles have a variety of physical features which make them highly successful predators. The saltwater crocodile is the largest living reptile, and adult males can reach lengths of more than 7 metres.
Those over two metres are generally regarded as most likely to attack and kill human beings. The size of the crocodile and the difference between its mass and the victim's is significant. A 75kg person attacked by a 3-metre crocodile has a 4 in 5 chance of survival. If the crocodile is four metres the victim's chances of survival drop to 1 in 5. Large crocodiles can stay underwater for at least an hour by dropping their heart rate to 2-3 beats per minute to conserve energy. A crocodile can float with only eyes and nostrils exposed, enabling it to approach prey without being detected. They can be concealed in water less than a metre deep. They have extremely good vision in low light. The tail of a crocodile is solid muscle and a major source of power, making it a strong swimmer and enabling it to make sudden lunges out of the water to capture prey. Although ungainly, crocodiles can walk on land at a speed of about 1-2 kilometres an hour. Short bursts of land speed can exceed 10 kilometres an hour. A 2012 study found the bite of one saltwater crocodile was recorded at 16,414 Newtons or 3,689 pounds of force-making it the strongest recorded bite of any individual animal. Crocodiles' bite force is so great partly because of their largest jaw-closing muscle - the ventral pterygoideus muscle - which has evolved to be so massive that it spills out behind the head. Crocodiles also have a second jaw joint that helps to distribute the extreme force of their bite.' An Indian study has noted of those who survive a crocodile attack, 'Most crocodile bites can cause severe injuries, especially to the extremities, due to the substantial bite force of the crocodile, which typically leads to extensive tissue damage, fractures, amputations, and vascular injuries.' The teeth are conical and designed to penetrate and hold, rather than cut and chew, though they are very sharp. The teeth of the upper and lower jaws intermesh perfectly when the jaws are closed, giving another means of holding firmly whatever they grasp.
The saltwater crocodile has also been shown to be the most aggressive of all crocodiles . A 2013 study
conducted by Charles Darwin University in the Northern Territory found that the saltwater crocodile was much more aggressive than six other species of crocodiles selected from around the world. The research, which monitored the behaviour of juveniles over two years found that the saltwater crocodile exhibited vastly more bellicose behaviour than species from Papua New Guinea, South America and south-east Asia. The saltwater crocodile was the only species to exhibit agitated tail twitching followed by lunging head strikes on its opponents.
Many Australians have been killed and injured by saltwater crocodiles. On average, one or two people are killed by saltwater crocodiles every year in Australia. The attacks usually occur in Queensland and the Northern Territory and occasionally in the northern parts of Western Australia and have been steadily increasing since crocodiles ceased to be hunted in the early 1970s. In the 28 years between 1971 and 1999, 14 people were killed. In the 25 years between 2000 and 2024 30 people died because of crocodile attacks. The largest number of people died in 2014 when four people were killed.
2024 saw the second highest number of fatalities in a year with three people dying. Figures for non-fatal attacks reveal a similar pattern. A report published in the Australian on May 13, 2023, stated, 'The regularity [of crocodile attacks in Queensland] has increased from four in the 1980s, to six in the '90s, 13 in the 2000s and 12 in the 2010s. Since 2020 there have been 10 attacks, three of which happened this year [in 2023].' There were three fatal crocodile attacks in 2024. This gives a total of 45 confirmed non-fatal crocodile attacks in Queensland since the 1980s. 2. There is an overpopulation of crocodiles which increased culling could bring under control
Those who support increased crocodile culling argue that the enormous growth in crocodile numbers since the species was protected in the 1970s is a major concern. Researchers claim this population growth has been partly enabled by crocodiles finding new food sources. Those supporting further culls claim that the present population growth and changed behaviour has brought crocodiles into dangerous contact with human beings.
There is a large and growing population of crocodiles in Australia. It is currently estimated that there are between 150,000 and 200,000 saltwater crocodiles in the wild, with most found in the areas surrounding Darwin and the Mary River. There are believed to be over 100,000 crocodiles in the Northern Territory
(not including the 135,000 reared in captivity on crocodile farms). Queensland's crocodile population of between 20,000 and 30,000 is split broadly between six populations, stretching from Rockhampton to the Gulf of Carpentaria, with 80 per cent north of Cooktown. Survey work along major West Australian rivers has found that crocodile numbers are continuing to grow, with the Ord River, at 2,000 crocodiles, having the largest crocodile population of the rivers surveyed. These figures represent a huge increase from the approximately 3,000 crocodiles believed to have been surviving in natural habitats across Australia prior to the early 1970s when crocodiles were protected. The Northern Territory's new Crocodile Management Program states that 'the crocodile population has recovered to near carrying capacity'. This implies that crocodiles may be at the point of exhausting their current habitats. Though some experts suggest that crocodile population growth is likely to have plateaued, except in Western Australia, they also observe that crocodiles are spreading across a wider range.
They note that crocodiles, once they reach maturity, have no natural predators, and that introduced species are providing them with additional food sources they did not traditionally have. Professor Stuart Bunn, director of the Australian Rivers Institute, has commented, 'As the crocodile population has recovered, they've moved back into the extensive river/floodplain systems in the Northern Territory and now seem to be much more dependent on terrestrial prey'. An introduced species, feral pigs, has become an important part of crocodiles' diet. Professor Bunn states, 'Without the local surge in feral pig abundance over the last 50 years and the crocodiles' shift in diet, the substantial growth in their numbers would not have been possible.' Dr Mariana Campbell of Charles Darwin University has similarly noted that crocodiles have moved away from estuarian prey - fish, turtles, crabs - and now have a more land-based diet. Dr Campbell notes, 'Now they are primarily feeding upon the terrestrial environment, taking up feral pigs, buffalo, wallabies.' Some farmers have expressed concern that this more land-based diet is encouraging crocodiles to move further away from waterways. A far north Queensland cane farmer living 65 kilometres from the coast and 400 metres above sea level has complained that crocodiles are overrunning his property. In addition to a huge growth in total numbers, crocodile density has increased significantly in most of the areas where they are found. The Northern Territory has the highest average density of 5.3 crocodiles per kilometre.
The Mary River has some of the highest recorded densities for the species, with 11 per kilometre in the tidal section and 5 per kilometre in the upstream freshwater section. In Queensland, the density of crocodiles is highest in the northern Cape York Peninsula, at 3 crocodiles per kilometre, and decreases to 1.2 crocodiles per kilometre in the Cairns region. Overall, Queensland has an average crocodile density of 1.7 per kilometre in the surveyed catchments. Though this is contested,
many of those who support increased culling argue that high crocodile numbers and densities must increase the probability of human encounters with crocodiles and that this makes attacks more likely. The Queensland Government's draft Crocodile Management Plan states, 'The recovery of the crocodile population since hunting was stopped in the mid-1970s . . . means there is an ever-increasing likelihood of contact between people and crocodiles.' The same point is made in the Northern Territory's new Crocodile Management Plan which refers to 'increasing high crocodile numbers and an increase in the negative interactions between crocodiles and people'. A 2022 study of the impact on Indigenous communities of increased crocodile numbers noted, 'The increased threat to life posed by the increased saltwater crocodile abundance is very real. Local Aboriginal families have suffered the loss of family members.' Apprehension over the growing number of crocodiles relative to the human population was recently expressed by the Northern Territory's Chief Minister, Eva Lawler. Following a fatal crocodile attack on a 12-year-old Indigenous girl, Lawler stated, 'We can't have the crocodile population outnumber the human population in the Northern Territory. We do need to keep our crocodile numbers under control.' 3. Increased crocodile culling could help reduce the damage crocodile attacks cause the tourist industry
Supporters of increased crocodile culling argue that international reports of growing crocodile numbers and increasing attacks can discourage tourists, undermining the tourist industry in northern Australia. Fear of crocodiles may deter tourists from visiting beaches, river areas, or national parks, negatively affecting the economy. Increased crocodile culling can reassure tourists. This will maintain economic activities such as fishing, boating, and eco-tourism.
Crocodile attacks in Australia attract substantial overseas media attention which can negatively affect tourism. When, for example, a 12-year-old girl was reported missing in the Northern Territory, in July 2024, and was subsequently found to have been killed by a crocodile, the incident received immediate widespread media coverage. A report in the British outlet Metro was headlined '"Gruesome" remains of 12-year-old found after crocodile attack'. It included information such as 'Saltwater crocodiles can grow up to 18ft (6 metres) in length and are larger and more aggressive than freshwater crocodiles, which also live in the waterways of the West Daly region. There have been at least two other crocodile attacks against humans in the Northern Territories in the last year.'
The Mirror US covered the event when the crocodile that had taken the girl was euthanised. The Mirror's headline read, 'Ferocious 16-foot crocodile killed after mauling girl, 12, and fisherman to death in horror attacks'. An American publication, Voice of America, produced an article discussing Australian politicians' concern about the bad publicity the 12-year-old's death had generated. The treatment was titled 'Crocodiles cannot outnumber people in Australian territory where girl was killed, leader says'. A month later in response to another death, the Canadian newspaper, The Halifax City News, published an article headlined, 'Human remains found inside a crocodile in Australia believed to be that of a 40-year-old tourist' The report included the observation, 'The crocodile population has exploded across Australia's tropical north since the predators became a protected species in the early 1970s.' Graphic reportage such as this is seen as compromising the tourist industry in the areas where the reported attacks occurred. There are also concerns that there may be a more general negative effect on tourism. Its supporters believe increased culling would allow Australian states and the Northern Territory to demonstrate to potential visitors that they are taking strong action against crocodile attacks.Media coverage of crocodile attacks mean they are a well-identified tourist risk that tourists are warned about in travel advice publications. Backpacker Advice, an international online advice service targeting young travellers and those travelling on a budget, has a section in its Australian information headed 'How Dangerous Are the Animals in Australia?' The overall tone of this section is reassuring, offering advice on how to minimise risks, and suggesting that many of the supposed perils tend to be exaggerated. However, when referring to crocodiles, it states, 'A saltwater crocodile is the only animal in Australia that is actively looking to kill you, they will eat anything that moves and hunt on instinct . . .' The advice indicates that most tourist destinations in northern Australia pose a low crocodile risk; however, it specifically names some hazardous locations, stating, 'The only two popular backpacker destinations where you may come in to contact with them are the areas around Darwin, such as Kakadu and Litchfield National Parks and Northern Queensland, including Cairns.'
Many of those concerned to foster tourism in the far north of Australia believe that increased culling could reduce the hazards sites such as this warn about. Increased culling would also reassure tourists that they were being protected.Politicians and other spokespeople for northern Australia have demanded culling be extended to safeguard the tourist industry. Federal Queensland MP, Bob Katter, has stated that one-third of Far North Queenslanders worked in tourism and warned that if visitor numbers dropped because of crocodile attacks, 'the whole of the economy in the northern part of Queensland will collapse'.
Local Cairns tourism entrepreneur Fred Arial has stated, 'If a croc is spotted on our beach or in a popular swim hole, whether it is two feet or 10 feet, it has to be culled or captured and removed. We are not only risking lives but our international reputation as a tourism destination.' Another Queensland spokesperson calling for crocodile culling to preserve the state's tourism industry is Jason Costigan, a radio commentator and former leader of the North Queensland First Party. Speaking in the Queensland Parliament on April 2, 2019, in support of a bill to institute crocodile culling, the member for Whitsundays stated, 'Investors are pouring millions and millions into rebuilding our tourist resorts in the Whitsundays, the place that I call paradise, yet there is a growing menace out there [crocodiles].' Costigan went on to warn of the harm that would be done to Queensland's brand as a tourist destination if there were further attacks. He stated, 'I do not want to have to take a phone call from the BBC or CNN as we go into damage control. We would never ever hear the end of it.' Similar concerns have been expressed in the Northern Territory. In July 2023, it was widely reported that a 67-year-old man had been attacked by a two-metre saltwater crocodile in Litchfield National Park. The park receives 300,000 visitors a year. Northern Territory political leaders expressed immediate apprehension, in part looking to protect the Territory's $3bn tourism industry. The day after the attack, the then Northern Territory Chief Minister, Natasha Fyles, asked, 'It's time to consider: do we need to go back to culling?' For political leaders and business representatives, increased crocodile culling could lessen the risk crocodiles pose to tourists and reduce reputational damage. 4. Increased crocodile culling could protect livestock and those living and working on cattle stations and in other remote areas
Supporters of increased culling argue that crocodiles are apex predators that prey on domestic animals such as cattle and horses. They claim that increased culling can help protect livestock at risk from crocodile attacks. They also claim that those working on cattle stations would be safer if crocodiles were culled more vigorously.
Complaints have been made in far north Australia that increasing numbers of crocodiles are posing a threat to livestock. Kimberley fisherman Leanne Kum Sing, who has photographed cattle taken by crocodiles, states, 'Station owners don't have established fencing or install drink troughs for their cattle, to prevent their cattle entering the river to drink. This means their livestock are at constant risk of crocodile attack.' Other fishermen have witnessed such attacks, one stating, 'We actually saw it [a crocodile] drag this cow off the bank a bit further up.'
Kimberley fisherman, Rodney Fischer, who has also taken photographs of crocodile predation, claims the incident he photographed reflects the fact cattle stations in the region are losing hundreds of thousands of dollars in livestock because of wandering cows being snatched by crocodiles. The financial burden caused by crocodile management and livestock losses to crocodile attacks have also been noted in the Northern Territory. One cattleman in the Territory has claimed he is spending $100,000 a year trying to overcome the stock losses caused by crocodiles. He has used a range of management tools to combat the property's crocodile problem. As well as fencing off river frontage, he has constructed dams and has sunk bores to give cattle other water options. Problems of livestock loss have also been noted in Queensland. When making a submission to the Queensland Parliament in 2018, Ross Benstead of Far North Queensland Consultants noted,' Gulf grazier Jack Fraser related to me how crocodiles were causing huge losses of cattle in the Gulf District. He was present several years ago when a large croc was cut open after it died, and 63 plastic cattle ear tags were found in its stomach contents. If this number of tags is correlated across the extensive river and estuarine system in the Upper and Lower Gulf grazing areas, the cattle number and economic loss to innumerable crocodiles is staggering.' Benstead also noted that other Queensland livestock were being taken by crocodiles. He stated, 'A former Cairns politician de-pastured a number of horses in the upper reaches of the Russell River about eight years ago. I saw some of them in the paddock at the time. Initially he put 30 horses into the paddock where the only water source was the Russell River. When he came back for them some 12 months later, he could only find about 15. A local landowner told me at the time he had seen large crocskill several horses when going for water.'
Station owners and crocodile catchers have noted that the problem of crocodile management is becoming more difficult as crocodiles increase in number, become larger and are more aggressive. The West Australian Department of Parks and Wildlife reported shooting a 3.5 metre crocodile after it spent six months venturing on to multiple properties around the Lower Ord River and being aggressive towards farmers and their livestock. The animal killed a horse, attacked a cow, and was suspected of killing a dog.
Crocodile management around cattle stations is also a growing problem in the Northern Territory. Crocodile catcher Roger Matthews had reported removing 18 crocodiles from the station where he works in a single month. The year before he removed 40 crocodiles over a whole year. High water levels make it difficult to control crocodiles' movements. Matthews explains, 'Our aim is to fence off the majority of the river and major creek systems so that crocodiles and livestock can co-exist. The problem we have, however, is that in a good wet season as we have now, there is water everywhere.' Matthews has also noted 'Other areas of major concern are the deep holes in creeks where we pump water to supply water tanks that feed to troughs for cattle to drink. There have been a few instances where we have had to dispatch crocodiles due to them raising up on all four feet and hissing and growling at us, ready to attack. These crocodiles are usually over 3.5 metres and are extremely brazen.' Crocodile critics also claim that those managing and working on cattle stations are finding it increasingly difficult to maintain their personal safety. The increasing number and size of crocodiles together with the variable weather conditions in northern Australia create problems. Crocodile catcher Roger Matthews has noted, 'The bigger guys mate, they can move anywhere and it's a real wake up call. . .:stay away from water courses because what might've had nothing in it for years, with all the rain we've had, there could be a potential crocodile anywhere . . . All the kids playing in dams and things, keep out of it. If you see your mates playing in them, tell them to get out of it.'
In January 2023, a man collecting crocodile eggs was attacked and badly injured by a crocodile on a remote cattle station near Daly River in the Northern Territory yesterday. In November 2023, a Northern Territory cattle producer in his mid-sixties was attacked by a crocodile while on his way to do some fencing. He had stopped to check the water level in a local billabong. Those who favour increased culling argue that reducing the number and size of crocodiles in remote areas would help prevent livestock losses and enhance the safety of those living in these regions.5. Increased culling could reduce the number of crocodiles found in urban areas
Supporters of culling argue that crocodiles in built up areas must be reduced. Expanding human occupation of previously undeveloped areas together with changing crocodile ranges is bringing urban populations into contact with crocodiles. Culling, they claim, may be necessary to keep crocodiles away from urban and suburban environments, ensuring human safety.
Those supporting increased culling note that crocodiles are increasingly being found in areas occupied or regularly visited by humans. What those supporting greater culls find disturbing is that these are areas where crocodiles were previously rare or unknown. Though a recent study has indicated that crocodiles do not appear to be moving south in significant numbers, there are many reports of crocodiles being sighted in places, within their overall range, where they are not usually found. In January 2021, wildlife rangers removed a crocodile nest from the edge of Palmerston, a city of approximately 40,000 people, about a 15-minute drive south of Darwin. This was the first time crocodiles had been found nesting so close to Darwin. Yusuke Fukuda, a leading crocodile researcher in the Territory, sees this as a sign that migratory crocodiles are moving into new places. He stated, 'I think it means good crocodile breeding habitats are getting saturated. We might be finding more and more nests where we think they should not be, or where we do not think they would be.'
There are several factors forcing crocodiles to move outside their established territories. One of these is climate change and associated sea-level rises. Crocodiles nest and breed on land and require freshwater habitats for this. These breeding areas typically lie at a low elevation along coasts or rivers and are, therefore, vulnerable to flooding as seas rise.
A recent study has revealed that sea-levels rising is likely to mean that approximately 50 percent of current crocodile nesting areas within the Kakadu Region will be lost. Though the same study found that there should be sufficient alternate sites available, there is the problem that these may bring more crocodiles within close proximity to areas occupied by people. Another factor leading to crocodiles appearing to encroach on areas of human habitation is that human populations and crocodile populations have both grown. James Walker, writing for The Australian in an article published on August 14, 2021, stated, 'The debate is particularly animated in Queensland because ballooning regional centres - think Cairns, Townsville and Mackay with a combined population of more than 500,000 - are eating into croc habitat, the brick-and-tile subdivisions displacing coastal lowlands that were formerly swamp or given over to sugarcane.'
The population of far north Queensland is growing rapidly. In 2017, the population was 287,000, and it is expected to grow to 362,000 by 2036. Increasing human occupation leads to land use changes which are a major cause of loss of crocodile habitat and crocodile displacement according to Professor Gordon Grigg of the University of Queensland. There is significant anecdotal evidence that crocodiles are being found more often in urban areas where the animals are usually not seen. In January 2024, a crocodile sighting was reported in Bundaberg in Queensland's Zone F, which is atypical crocodile habitat under the Queensland Crocodile Management Plan. Crocodile sightings are rare in this area, and any crocodiles found will be removed from the wild.
Matt Brien, program co-ordinator of the Queensland government's northern wildlife operations, has stated, 'People are not wrong in believing that there are more crocodiles in more places.' Far North Queensland is the area where independent federal politician Bob Katter and his son Robbie, a state MP who heads the Katter's Australia Party, have become the spokespeople for north Queensland town dwellers who believe their concerns about crocodile encroachment are being ignored by southern-based politicians who do not have to deal with the problem. Robbie Katter has stated, 'Saltwater crocodiles and human communities do not mix. I find it mind-boggling that not wanting your pets, friends and family members eaten by crocs is considered radical these days.' Bob Katter has complained about a loss of amenity in Queensland towns encroached upon by crocodiles. In March 2021, he stated, 'Lake Placid used to be where kids went to swim, it was a playground for Cairns. But now, you'd only do it if you're mad.' Bob Katter and Katter's Australia Party are long-time advocates of a general cull of crocodiles in Queensland. ,