Right: spectators take advantage of special misting and fan facilities to cool off, although many in the crowd needed treatment for heat-related conditions.
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Arguments suggesting the Australian Open offers sufficient safeguards against hot weather
1. The heat presents no serious threat to player health
Officials at the Australian Open repeatedly assured players and the media that there was no serious risk involved in players competing in the conditions of extreme heat that prevailed during the first week of the tournament in January, 2014.
The officials cited both the human body's capacity to deal with such conditions and the nature of the game of tennis.
Tim Wood, the doctor for the championship, stated, 'We know that man is well-adapted to exercising in the heat. If you take us back a few thousand years, we evolved on the high plains of Africa chasing antelope for eight hours under these conditions.'
Dr Wood continued, 'There will be some players who complain and no-one is saying it is terribly comfortable to play out there, but, from a medical perspective, we know that man is well adapted to exercising in the heat. Whether it is humane or not is a whole other issue.'
On Tuesday, January 14, 2014, the second day of the tournament, Dr Wood noted, 'Of course there were a few players who experienced heat-related illness or discomfort, but none required significant medical intervention after they had completed their match.'
Dr Wood stated further, 'Certainly in the next four days the players will have plenty of chance to acclimatize. The body does put in measures that assist in coping with the heat, so if anything, the players will acclimatize with playing in the heat.
They might actually get better, particularly with the 48 hours' rest between matches.'
Dr Ross Tucker, exercise physiologist and sports consultant, has explained that the body has self-protective mechanisms which protect it from serious malfunction once its internal temperature reaches 40.
Dr Tucker explains, 'When people are made to run on treadmills in lab studies, exhaustion happens when this body temperature is reached. Think of it as a short circuit switch, for your own protection - the hot brain reduces muscle activation once we hit 40C, and there is also evidence that this reduction in muscle activation happens in anticipation of the thermal failure, specifically to prevent it.'
It has also been argued that tennis has regular breaks and does not therefore demand uninterrupted exertion. It is also noted that tennis matches are generally relatively short. This point has also been made by Dr Wood, 'Given the length of time tennis matches generally go for and the sweat rate of most normal, healthy athletes, they won't get to a state where they get too critically dehydrated.'
Dr Wood further noted, 'Tennis, as a sport, is relatively low risk for major heat problems compared to, in Melbourne, AFL football, compared to continuous running events... The time the ball is in play, [compared with] total time for the match, is relatively small. The amount of heat they produce from muscles exercising is relatively small in terms of what someone continuously exercising will do.'
2. A range of safeguards have been put in place to protect the players
The measures put in place to protect players from the effects of heat are largely determined by the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT). This is a reading that is determined by combining a variety of variables - the air temperature, the humidity, the wind and the effect of solar radiation.
The WBGT was developed by the United States military in the 1950s to help stop heat sickness in its training camps.
At a reading of 26, for instance, ice vests are provided to all players on the courts. At 28, there is a 10-minute break after the second set for players in the junior singles event and a 15-minute break for the wheelchair events.
At a reading of 30.1, there's a mandatory 10-minute break in women's singles if the players split the first two sets.
The tournament doctor, Tim Wood, has noted that if a player is affected by the heat, they may be advised to lie down with their legs elevated to stop the pooling of blood, which can lead to the staggers. And plenty of ice will be on hand at the change of ends.
The last protection offered under the extreme heat policy is that at a certain WBGT games on the outside courts will be suspended and the roofs will be closed on the two show courts and air-conditioning deployed. These provisions only occur once the sets currently being played have been completed.
The stage at which these last protections are deployed is at the discretion of the tournament referee, who consults with the tournament doctor and meteorologist.
The tournament referee, Wayne McKewen, has indicated that he values the discretion he has been given to determine when the final provision of the extreme heat policy will be put in place. He believes that the flexibility he has allows him to better protect the players.
Mr McKewen has stated, 'I don't like to have a set guideline because if we know it's going to be fluctuating - then we will make a decision based on that. If we know it's going to spike, we can bring it in sooner rather than later for the players.'
The tournament referee has also observed that he also receives input from trainers after a player has had a particularly gruelling match in the heat and gives that player a later starting to time in their subsequent match.
3. Dealing with the heat is largely a matter of players' attitude and preparation
Those who argue that the Australian Open offers sufficient heat protection for players note that being able to deal with such adverse conditions is in large measure a result of mental fitness and appropriate preparation.
Many players have argued that being able to deal with the heat is in large measure a product of prior training and attitude.
Serbian player, Novak Djokovic, who withdrew from the 2009 Australian Open with heat sickness, has said of this year's championship, 'I'm physically fit. I've been practising, preparing for the Australian summer that we all know can be difficult at times with the conditions.
Knowing that I played a day match today, I prepared myself mentally for that. It's not just physically. Mentally you need to be tough enough to not give up and not think about what conditions can do to you.'
Former world number one, Roger Federer, commented similarly, 'It's just a mental thing.
If you've trained hard enough your entire life or the last few weeks and you believe you can do it and come through it, there's no reason [you can't do it]. If you can't deal with it, you throw in the towel.'
Former world champion, Serena Williams, has also claimed, 'So far I have been okay.
I have been training for a long, long time in the heat in Florida as well as playing. I have been coming to Melbourne for years and years.
So you just have to be ready for those hot conditions and just try to get through it.'
Jamie Murray, who suffered heatstroke after his first round doubles victory, stated later that he believed the problem was that he had not prepared adequately.
Murray claimed, 'My alarm didn't go off so I slept in about an hour and a half later than what I should have. I was only woken up because the driver called the room to see where I was.
That was 8.30am and we were supposed to practise at 9am, then the match was 11am. I was kind of rushing around, I didn't get time to have breakfast and all that stuff, so it wasn't an ideal start.'
Murray concluded, 'I'm sure I would have been okay if I hadn't had the start to the day that I had. I know the risks you take by going out in that heat and not being fully prepared.'
Greg Whyte, a former Olympian and professor of applied sport and exercise science, has noted, 'What you have to remember is that athletes, particularly tennis players, play all over the world.
They are very well acclimatised and incredibly well looked after. They hydrate themselves well on court and there are expert teams around them who are deciding if it is potentially dangerous.
If we were taking unacclimatised individuals and putting them in these extreme environment then I would be more concerned.'
On January 15, 2014, Kevin Mitchell, writing in The Guardian, argued that many of those who complain of the heat are really suffering from a lack of will and commitment.
Mitchell stated, 'Some of them turn up, collect their $30,000 cheque for just making it to the first round and they tank it - they may not necessarily withdraw but may not play to their fullest potential (and it should be emphasised that a lack of effort is very different from fixing a match). There is no other way to put it, however harsh it sounds. They give up mentally if not physically, denying the crowd a proper contest and their opponent a satisfying victory...
And the heat was not really the deciding factor in most cases.'
4. Making additional changes to the Australian Open would be disruptive
It has been claimed that many of the changes that have been proposed for the Australian Open to reduce the impact of the heat would have disruptive side-effects.
For example, it has been noted that changing the time of year when the championship is held would have a variety of adverse consequences.
In an opinion piece published in The Roar, on January 17, 2014, it was claimed, 'The date of the tournament hasn't changed since 1987. Changing the Open to March/April would move the tournament outside the summer school holiday period, potentially impacting attendance figures, which reached record levels last year despite the heat. Such a change would also clash with the early rounds of the NRL and AFL seasons.'
It has also been noted that two Masters Series events are held in March and established tournaments in January and February could suffer from a drop in quality.
It has also been noted that many of the changes proposed would result in making games and indeed tournaments take longer to stage and that this could pose difficulties for both players and spectators.
It has also been noted that if a variety of additional processes to reduce the effect of the heat were introduced it would be difficult for the referee to decide at just what point each should be applied. This, it is claimed, has the potential to create even more uncertainty for the players.
5. Australian tennis officials have adopted an attitude which respects the views of all players
The Australian tournament officials have tried to adopt an attitude which is fair to all, recognising that there are many players who do not want games postponed because of the heat.
The Australian Open tournament director, Craig Tiley, has stated, 'It's important to note that the player feedback has ranged from players who wanted to stop play because of the heat to many players who did not want play to stop at all.'
Tiley stated further, 'We have always, and will continue to, talk to players on both tours and look to alleviate any confusion in this process and in the players' understanding of it.'
Some players have clearly not looked to have the roof closed or games postponed, believing the heat affects everyone and that those who have prepared properly will prevail. They therefore consider it unfair when provisions are made for those whom they believe have simply not trained appropriately.
Roger Federer has stated, 'Just deal with it, because it's the same for both players.'
Spanish player David Ferrer has offered a similar opinion. 'I prefer when it's not too hot, but I think everybody prefers that. But it's the same for everybody. I know it's always hot every year here in Australia.'
In the 2009 Australian Open, when the decision was also taken to close the roof because of the heat, Russian Svetlana Kuznetsova complained because she felt she was disadvantaged by the change in conditions.
Kuznetsova stated, 'Well, yeah, definitely I'm angry. Why should I not be? Game going my way. I'm fine playing with the roof (open). I think the guys yesterday, it was the same weather everybody was playing with the roof (open). Why today they had to close it? I didn't get it. Yeah, that was why I was angry.'
Retired American tennis player Andy Roddick has similarly stated, 'I used to hate it when they took us out of the extreme conditions and put us indoors, because I felt like I had worked in the off-season on my fitness...
Do we need to do extreme things because guys are struggling in the heat? I don't know. Personally, I don't think so. I think as athletes we push our bodies to do things that aren't normal and, frankly, that's what we get paid for. I can't feel it...
When you play there, it's brutal. It feels like you're playing in a hairdryer, but that's all part of it. Each Slam presents its own unique set of challenges and you kind of have to attack it accordingly."